VIRTUAL WORLD AS A WAY OF CONSTRUCTING A RENEWED IDENTITY

2010

After waking up late in the morning, he turned his computer on and checked his e-mails while brushing his teeth. Along the first cup of coffee of the day, he tweeted about himself in 140 characters via Twitter. Then he opened his Facebook account and checked if there is any new notification. After commenting on his Facebook friends’ photos and status updates, he started reading and commenting on newly written blog posts of the day using his RSS reader. Of course he didn’t forget to check his favorite YouTube channels if there is any new video uploaded. Then, while eating his breakfast he played with his online character in the Second Life game. For more than 2-3 hours a day, he uses his access to internet for either communication and interaction with other online people or for content generation. These are his almost responsibilities for that he is staying in contact with his virtual social space.

Introduction

Communicating through e-mails, twitting, checking Facebook photos and status updates, following and commenting on blogs with a RSS reader, sharing a video on YouTube or playing an online game with an online character are just some forms of the 21st century style virtual social interaction. These digital interactions turn individuals’ attention from the real world to the virtual world and whether you are very much interested or not in this type of online participation, you have a more or less different identity than the one in the real world. Once an individual is online, a detachment occurs from the body and the identity he owns in the real world, as the need for the body and existing identity is no longer required in the virtual world and the user can participate separately from it.

In this paper, my theory is that although virtual world wouldn’t exist without the real world and although they are not truly separated, it is a fact that today the individuals have the chance to renew their identities with the help of internet, creating a virtual identity as they wish to have in the real world. Although there are many important points to be discussed about the issue, I will try to stay in a particular outline that I prefer to extend in its boundaries. Throughout the paper I will explain how this new virtual world space is constructed through time as a result of Web 1.0’s evolution to Web 2.0; how and in which conditions and reasons virtual identities are shaped by individuals themselves; why it is difficult for internet users to exit this newly emerged digital world and return to their former non-virtual life-style. After these points, in the last part I will examine Facebook, which is an online social networking platform, and highlight several attributes and statistics about it.

Discussing the Differences Between Web 1.0 and Web 2.0

Before coming to analyze the reasons of how virtual identity concept is formed, it will be proper to understand the evolution of world wide web via the change from Web 1.0 to Web 2.0 and its consequences. Simply the outcomes of this change resulted in a more user participated virtual space which is more different than the one in the past. The phrase “Web 2.0” was first mentioned in a conference in San Francisco, California in 1994, where the leading figures of online innovation community met each other (Graham, 2005). They were seeing the existing and upcoming changes in the online world, which I will briefly mention below, and to emphasize these, they divided the internet history into two: Web 1.0 and Web 2.0.

Avoiding the technical explanations such as changing infrastructures of websites or improving programming and scripting languages, in this section there will be basic explanations for how differences between Web 1.0 and Web 2.0 made evolutionary changes in the virtual society. In fact it should be underlined that a virtual community of what we understand today is basically a consequence of the changes between these two. Fundamentally it is the recent understanding of user participation which changed everything internet consumers knew before.

Expanding reciprocity between user and provider, which was not subsistent in the past, made web change into a platform where you can exchange data and information in several simple and quick ways. Actually data exchange was the driving force in this revolution which means everybody can be a contributor in the virtual world and create his own space. For instance, one of the prominent examples of Web 2.0 concept, Blogger (http://www.blogger.com) can help you create a free personal website for yourself in a couple of minutes, which is called a blog, where you can post your thoughts, feelings or put pictures and videos into it simply. In the past creating a personal website was not only difficult, as you had to know a scripting language, but also expensive. Likewise, Wikipedia (http://www.wikipedia.org), with a subtitle of free encyclopedia, is also another example which is created with user generated content. Before the concept of user generated content of Web 2.0, the most popular encyclopedic data provider was Britannica (http://www.britannica.com) where users were only consumers without any chance of content participation.

RSS (Really Simple Syndication) is another formation of newly emerged virtual world, where you can track websites or blogs you prefer. The system simply alerts you when new posts or updates occur in the websites you follow and instead of checking on every website you follow if there is any new content, it allows user to notice and access updated websites in just seconds. Moreover, there is this new P2P (Peer to Peer) file sharing system, where every client share products like mp3s, movies etc unlike in the former client-server interaction where transaction only happens if client requests service from the server. So, using practices like RSS and P2P or generating content in a simple and fast way enable internet consumers to create their own space in the virtual world where they do not need to request service from a few providers.

In addition to a virtual space of every individual, now there is the chance for everyone to create their own virtual identity through instant messaging services, social networking websites and online games. To start with, instant messaging services like MSN Messenger or ICQ are providing an alternative communication model to calling each other via telephones that you can communicate with your friends sitting in front of a computer. Moreover, social networking sites like Facebook (http://www.facebook.com) and Twitter (http://www.twitter.com) or online games like Second Life (http://secondlife.com) enable individuals to create their virtual identity as they prefer to be. What is remarkable is the fact that while a new world wide web understanding of content generation ability or not only consumerist but also provider practices are appeared, it is also led to a circumstance that individuals are now able to renew their identities virtually where many of the basic cues about personality and social role we are accustomed to in the real world is absent and ambiguous in this disembodied world of virtuality (Kollock and Smith 1999, p. 29).

Reasons to Construct Virtual Identities

For hundreds of years, humanity existed in one way or another without the digital world we now experience. Every individual had his own identity and social space without generating content or sharing data on the internet. Is the advancement of technology the only reason for our generation’s search for a virtual space and identity? Extending communication technologies brought new ways of being, new chains of values and new sensibilities (Holmes 1997, p. 29) but what reasons encourage individuals to construct new identities and new virtual social spaces in the non-real world? Three conditions are essential in my opinion: First one is realizing the existence of the world society via internet and consequently feeling like a smaller piece than imagined. Second one is the opportunity to construct the self-identity from the start and the last one is the easy accessibility to the virtual world. These three are combined with the advancing technology which let individuals easily generate content, build online identities and create a new space for themselves.

Before spending hours of time in the internet while social networking, chatting with people, playing online games or generating content via blogging services, individuals’ social interaction was generally around their neighborhood and work places. In today’s techno-social world space, you can get in touch and even be friends with a Chinese or African guy that you probably will not see in your life for once. The world population was again crowded before the advancement of technology and internet but the social environment we were interested in was only our close neighborhood. It was realized that the communication with people outside the neighborhood was possible, thanks to the advanced online opportunities. So if we change the former definition of social circle and integrate it with the reality of social circle of the virtual world, then it can be seen that the location we fill in the new virtual social circle is a lot smaller than the one in the former neighborhood-social circle. Now there are more than millions of people in the internet and it is possible to notice them as long as they generate content, use social networking web sites and build social spaces of their own. As a consequence it is normal to feel like a small virtual grain of virtual sand in this virtual desert.

After all, this “feeling like a small grain of sand” condition and its consequence as a trigger and the motivation to extend it went arm-in-arm with the opportunity of content generation in the internet. Owing to blogging services, an understanding of citizen journalism (McNair 2009, p. 223) appeared and as a blog owner or content generator in another web service people realized that they have the opportunity to enter a social circle much bigger than their neighborhood. The enthusiasm to feel like more than a small grain of sand and a largely self-referential desire motivated by personal fulfillment changed the dynamics of the social circles of individuals once and for all (Papacharissi 2009, p. 230). In this point one can remember the famous quote of Andy Warhol which is “In the future everyone will be world-famous for 15 minutes” and change it to “Today everyone can be famous in any minute.”

Another reason or condition that motivates individuals to create online identities is the possibility to virtually construct identities from the start which they are not satisfied in reality. This renewing phenomenon is mentioned in a satirical cartoon by Peter Steiner in The New Yorker in 1993 in which a dog sitting in front of a computer talks to another: “On the Internet, nobody knows you're a dog” (UNC, 1997). In other words, reconstructing the identities via the social networking websites or other online communication forms enabled human beings to reshape their appearances as they would like to be. This virtual reconstruction and the feeling of conscious or unconscious disembodiment from the real world via the online practices do not mean a total change in the real world appearance and identities of individuals. Still, this availability of virtual reshaping definitely has more than an imaginary effect in real lives as nearly all the interaction in the online world occurs with online people who also have real world identities. For instance, as one Facebook user makes comment on a photo of his friend’s, this interaction will not only stay in the online sphere and will have an influence in the real world. This may well be the consequence of the interference of the real and virtual worlds.

Additional triggers of will to have a place in the virtual world are its easy accessibility and being free of charge. If you have an internet accessible computer and internet provider, all the virtual doors of the digital world is open for you to enter and create a new and also a non-real space and identity which is also nearly free of charge. As the advancement of technology goes beyond our imaginations comparing to 1990s, now many people have notebooks to log on to the internet in anywhere they want and even use a cell phone to check e-mails or the updates in favorite blogs or social networking websites. In some respect this means that individuals have the possibility to carry their virtual identities along with themselves. It is not difficult to foresee that as the improvement in mobile access to the internet and in the wireless technologies continue, the interference of virtual and real worlds will not be a subject of an utopian world.

Binding Power of the Virtual World

The reasons I have mentioned above basically tried to explain how this virtual identity and virtual space phenomena nearly replaced or at least had an irreversible change in the real equivalents. But is there any chance to exit this digital world and return back to our non-virtual daily lives? Besides, if it is even possible, do we want to return to our former life-styles? The fact is that the ability to change and form identities of themselves gives people the sense of confidence they need. As long as you have your access codes to your online identity, you have the power to present yourself as you prefer to other online people. However the only way to keep this power alive is to stay online. Besides staying online is not enough to keep your online identity breathing, you also have to generate content, share mp3s, movies etc or contribute to a social networking website with your existence. This dependency condition proves a binding interaction where the both parts need each other but more importantly the individual need the virtual space as the virtual world can place anyone as soon as he quits. But does the individual, who had once experienced the digital climate, have a replacement for the virtual world?

There is another point to mention which is the constant innovation habit in the digital world. Mark Zuckerberg, the founder and CEO of the social networking website Facebook, is one of the contributors to the innovative atmosphere of the online world: “We view it as our role in the system to constantly be innovating and be updating what our system is to reflect what the current social norms are” (Digital Beat, 2010). The norms he is talking about are in fact the issues which make internet users feel an obligation to stay connected as long as they can. The pressure not to get behind of the frequently innovating digital world and the motivation to be keeping attached to the system, which enable users protect their presence in the virtual world, make them got caught by the binding spirit of the internet. All those conditions make it difficult for internet consumers to give up their efforts to quit which have possible consequence of alienation from the virtual society.

The result of this binding process and the search for a digital identity makes a total blindness for individuals in which they are drifting away from the non-virtual world. This blindness of virtuality phenomena is also pointed out in some Hollywood movies, one of which has the most impact called The Matrix (1999). In the movie, a non-real system called “matrix”, which is developed by the machines created by humanity, is deceiving the human beings and using their energy to extend their machinery world. The dialog between the leading character called Neo and the man called Choi is remarkable: “My computer… You ever have that feeling where you don't know if you're awake or still dreaming?” “Mm, hey, it sounds to me like you need to unplug, man.” Another dialog, this time between Neo and another character called Morpheus, shows the problematic of body and mind separation which can be reflected to our reality-virtuality paradigm: “I thought it wasn't real. If you're killed in the Matrix, you die here?” “Your mind makes it real. The body cannot live without the mind.” (IMSDB, 2006)

Analyzing Facebook: A Binding Social Network

The identities we own in the real world can be noticed with our actions, choices, behaviors, speeches etc. Facebook is one of the most popular social networking websites that carries the hard labor of defining self in the real world to the virtual world where we can feel our existence in an another way. It also fits the procedure of the non-real world that you can form your identity nearly as well as you like. Below you will find some really interesting facts and statistics about Facebook which is all taken from the press room page of the website.

Facebook is founded in February, 2004 by Harvard University student Mark Zuckerberg and his three friends. It defines itself as social utility that helps people communicate and share information more efficiently with their friends, family and coworkers. In the end of its first year, 2004, Facebook reached 1 million users which in 5 years in 2009 achieved an enormous number of 350 millions from which a 70% is from outside the United States. In addition it strikes attention, as it is an American foundation, that it now gives its service in 70 languages with the help of more than 1000 employees around the world which means a large sphere of neighborhood for users.

Here are some facts about how individuals take Facebook and the virtual reality it possesses seriously: Half of the total 350 millions of users enter the website in daily basis and an average user stays in the Facebook for approximately 55 minutes. Moreover, Facebook enables users to create fan groups where people join other people that share the same taste just like in the real world where individuals come together at the same table to share similar opinions. Again, in one month, an average user clicks the interactive “like” button for 9 times and posts 25 comments on Facebook content that is generated by users, which enable them express their appreciation and help establish a social space.

Content generation is getting in a more important position for Facebook’s plans as since they noticed that the content which is generated by the users make them unconsciously attach themselves to the virtuality, they started working on developments that make it easier for users to create data and share information. Today 2,5 billion photos and 3,5 million event links are uploaded by users each month. Furthermore, 3,5 billion pieces of content like web links, web stories, blog posts and notes etc are shared each week again by users. These massive numbers help Facebook and the consumers build a virtual world that is came out of real world and then become somehow a sort of threat against the real world and real identities. After all I wonder if the Facebook’s closeness to the real world makes us connect and get attached to the virtuality of Facebook more.

Facebook is not only working on infra-firm developments, it is also planning to possess more space in the internet. Since December 2008, Facebook allows other websites in the internet to make connections with its database of users by using the “Facebook Connect” system. Facebook Connect lets website owners to easily create links between their own web pages and Facebook which in result helps Facebook to have more generated content and also free advertisement in some way. In return website owners have the opportunity to reach more people via the large database of Facebook. In numbers, more than 80,000 websites have implemented Facebook Connect since its availability and more than 60 million Facebook users engage with Facebook Connect on external websites every month.

Another feature that makes individuals to stay connected is the availability of the mobile access, thanks to the recent developments in the wireless and cell phone technologies. There are more than 65 million active users currently accessing Facebook through their mobile devices and people that use Facebook on their mobile devices are almost 50% more active on Facebook than non-mobile users. This constant togetherness of individuals and Facebook causes a relationship that drives people to a feeling of not to fall behind of recent updates, contents and news. In the end it becomes a relationship in which individuals are -intentionally or not- made to carry their virtual identities to their real worlds.

Last point in my Facebook study is the one that helps my argument about the binding atmosphere of the virtual world and nearly the impossibility of individuals’ exit from it. The fact is you cannot leave Facebook permanently. It does not let you end your relationship with itself forever and if you decide to close your account it just freezes it until the time you come back. It is already difficult to even think about leaving your virtual identity and it seems that it does not matter if you decide to close your virtual identity or not, Facebook does not let you do it anyhow.

Conclusion

Throughout the paper I tried to explain how and in which conditions and reasons individuals create virtual identities and virtual spaces of their own. The intention of detachment from the body and the identity in the real world is mostly triggered by the evolution of internet technology and its consequences. After the emergence of Web 2.0, internet users were able to generate content, participate in the social sphere of the digital world and contribute to it in one way or another. But is the advancement in technology the only trigger for individuals to deepen their existence in the virtual world? Realizing the presence of the world society more seriously than before -thanks to the social networking websites, blogging services and other Web 2.0 features- individuals’ feeling of “a small grain of sand in the desert” encouraged them to establish a more durable place in the virtual world by generating content and sharing information etc.

Also easy accessibility to the internet and the opportunity to construct their identities from the start, though it is non-real, made individuals attach themselves to the virtual system. Furthermore, the constant innovation of the digital world and the pressure not to fall behind from the virtual social space caused individuals bound themselves to this phenomena day by day. However this virtual rebuilding and the position of disembodiment from the real world through the online practices do not mean a total alteration in the real world appearance and identities of individuals. Yet, this availability of virtual reshaping definitely has more than a sentimental effect in real lives as nearly all the interaction in the online world occurs with online people who also have real world identities.



Bibliography


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McNair, Brian. 2009. The Internet and The Changing Global Environment in Routledge Handbook of Internet Politics, ed. Andrew Chadwick and Philip N. Howard. Abingdon: Routledge

Papacharissi, Zizi. 2009. The Virtual Sphere 2.0: The Internet, The Public Space, and Beyond in Routledge Handbook of Internet Politics, ed. Andrew Chadwick and Philip N. Howard. Abingdon: Routledge

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BEING A WORLD POWER: ILLUSIONS AND REALITIES

2009

Years after the Second World War (1939-1945), it was understood that the year 1945 meant not only the end of war but also the start of a period when new power structures were being shaped and new world powers were being emerged. It is also the year that signifies the beginning of Britain’s imperial power impoverish which was realized years later. In this paper, considering the 1946-1961 period, I will try to show why Britain changed her mind to join the European Economic Community in 1961 which she once ignored to be a part of.

My theory is that once an imperial world power, Britain could not protect her place after the Second World War (WWII) and in the time of emerging new powers that are US and USSR, she decided to link herself with the newly rising European Economic Community to strengthen her position. Throughout the paper, to support my theory, there will be several points to be emphasized such as how US and USSR became world powers after the Second World War; in which circumstances Britain lost its imperial power and how European countries gathered together and established an economically and in some respect politically rising community that grabbed attention of Britain.

In the beginning, to understand the spirit of the time, we should look closely at the post-war surroundings. After the WWII, when European countries were in poor conditions both physically and morally, many people expected Britain to take the lead in reorganizing Europe because of her wartime role (Urwin 2007, p. 18). In spite of that, Britain was highly negative about any form of integration with other European countries mostly counting on their proud wartime role and history of sovereignty-first perspective. Their understanding of foreign policy was based on relations with US and Commonwealth countries and not with devastated European countries which could possibly distract her from being a self-independent world power (Dinan 2004, p. 24). In addition, this solitary perspective of Britain can be testified from the first hand which is the British President of the time, Winston Churchill.

In 1946, Winston Churchill gave a speech at Zurich University where he clearly showed the road map of his country: “The first step is to form a Council of Europe (…) In all this urgent work, France and Germany must take the lead together. Great Britain, the British Commonwealth of Nations, mighty America and Soviet Russia must be the friends and sponsors of the new Europe” (Nelsen and Stubb 2004, p. 11). Although Britain showed European countries some courage, in reality they were in need of the political leadership of Britain, due to her post-war confidence and prestige. Certainly it was a tactical mistake of British headquarters to stay passive which they paid for most years to come where US and USSR became replacing world powers (Mander 1963, p. 188).

To describe how US gained her world power status while getting rid of her isolationist policies, two striking approaches should be carefully examined. One of them was the Marshall aids, which was to help European countries that were ruined economically after the WWII. By the help of this recovery program, US was looking to establish a solid market ground for her exports by gaining companionship of European countries (ENA, Historical Events). Another initiative by US was North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) which was formed for the aim of military alliance, whereby United States were now committed to Western Europe’s defense and so that continental Europeans were less dependent militarily on Britain (Dinan 2004, p. 36).

On the other hand, in the Eastern Europe, Soviet Russia already proved herself as a militarily strong country by standing still against the Nazis in the WWII. Moreover, their expansionist and aggressive ideas over Western Europe which were also supported by the rising communism ideology and her superior technological advancements comparing with the continent made them one of the Cold War actors alongside with the US. These formations were leading the world to a politically bipolarized form for many years to come which is also indicating the point I will come in the upcoming paragraphs: the decline of the Britain as a world power.

The political and economic contradictions and competition between the Cold War actors, the US and the USSR, led to not only a geographically but also a politically compressed Europe. Before coming to the reasons of Britain’s decline, I see a necessity to explain how European unification is shaped and caught attention of Britain in the late 1950s. First of all, one possible outside stimulus that brought weakened post-war countries of Europe together was the Cold War contention between US and USSR, which was fueled by initiatives such as Marshall Plan and NATO of US and the offensive and expansionist ideas of the Soviets (Mander 1963, p. 184).

Nevertheless, it was the decision and determination of European countries to form a unification that might lead them to a fresh exit from the economically and physically obscure atmosphere of that time. Consequently, the idea of supranational authority was accepted one way or another and after several theoretical debates European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) was formed with the pioneering cooperation of France and Germany to help the continent compose an economically more stable ground (Urwin 2007, p. 18). This alliance continued under the formations of European Economic Community (EEC) and Euratom owing to the agreement named Treaty of Rome in 1957 (Lee 1996, p. 283).

In a narrow perspective, it can be seen that the main objective of European Unification was to provide an economical integration so the member countries might get better conditions under the regulations that facilitate the commercial relations. But more than that, although the agreements were made under the topic of “economics”, the long term aim was to establish the political unification of Western Europe (Shanks and Lambert 1962, p. 165). As a result European nations had embarked on a road which would lead in the end to all major economic and also political decisions being made on behalf of Europe as a whole (Beddington-Behrens 1966, p. 18). In addition, it was the start of a century, which was already suffered enough of wars, that economical power was now the heart of having a strong political position in the world. This unification process of European continent led to an economical and political rise in 1950s whereby Britain’s power was waning as a consequence of her post-war tactical mistakes and illusions of still being an independent world power (Hörber 2006, p. 340).

While European countries were unifying to form an economical and political influence and the US and the USSR were emerging as newly world powers, Britain, on the other hand, was experiencing a declining process which can be plainly portrayed by the consequences of two main incidents: Decolonization of Commonwealth countries and Suez Crisis. First to mention, decolonization process of Asian and African countries, which generally took place in 1940s and 1950s, was mostly encouraged by the post-war international climate and the two anti-colonialist superpowers, the US and the USSR (ENA, Historical Events).

As the perception of economically counting upon the colonized Commonwealth countries was in the core of their politics, the most effected world power from this independence trend was Britain. Not only she lost her links with countries like India that she trusted in political issues but also she lost her strength in overseas markets while the newly independent countries started to link commercial links with countries other than Britain (Lee 1996, p. 290). The United States, the anti-colonialist and triggering power of the independence trend, was now the main commercial partner of former Commonwealth countries owing to her highly developed economy and large population of 180 million people (Beddington-Bahrens 1966, p. 133).

While decolonization process of Commonwealth countries is indicating the decline of Britain’s economic power, Suez Crisis shows how Britain lost its world power status through the political consequences of the incident. After Egypt’s decision to nationalize the Suez Canal in 1956, Britain and France sent troops to Egypt to gain control of the canal. Although they were militarily successful, they had to leave the Suez Canal due to the threat of nuclear bombings to London and Paris by the anti-colonialist Soviet Union. Likewise, despite being the traditional allies of the European powers, the United States did not appreciate this kind of neo-colonial diplomacy and used extreme financial and diplomatic pressure on British government through the United Nations (ENA, Historical Events). The obvious conclusion that the Suez Crisis exposed was that Britain, alongside with France, was no longer a world power, being beaten by the US and the USSR on political, economical, technological and martial circumstances (Hörber 2006, 340).

Contrasting to newly emerged world powers which are the US and the USSR and the significance of the recently unifying European countries through several economic agreements such as the Common Market, Britain soon realized that she had to increase her activities in economical aspects. After several failed attempts of Britain to make economic arrangements and form a free trade area with the six countries of the Common Market, she later established the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) with non-members of the EEC which are Austria, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Sweden and Switzerland (Dinan 2005, p. 44).

But the outcomes of the EFTA was not like Britain had desired as the EFTA members were vitally interested in trading with the rest of the world and were looking for a more integrated European market (Beddington-Behrens 1966, p. 48). In the meantime, EEC members continued their closer economical integration. As a result, the lacking free access of Britain to the necessary European markets made her notice that she could not compete with the EEC since her economical performance were far less than the members of the union (Lee 1996, p. 290).

In this atmosphere of changing power structures, Britain had to replace herself in the updated political and economical senses, in a different direction than before (Lloyd 1986, p. 373) One of the options, the most probable one which helped me construct my theory, was joining the EEC which was establishing its political unity increasingly out of economical integration. In a political atmosphere in which new and greater world powers were emerged, Britain had to change her existing perception and take a different way to stop her weakening in the political issues. Continental Europe was now a political force which Britain had to reckon and eventually she applied for membership to the EEC in 1961 (Urwin 2007, p. 24).

One question can be asked: Was joining the EEC the only option that Britain had to improve her political and economical status? Apparently it was the most sensible decision Britain made in the period of 15 years. Other than joining the EEC, one option could be strengthening links with her historical partner, the US. However it was irrational that the US, in the process of the Suez Crisis, had already shown her desire to be a world power alone without the help of Britain. On the other hand, although the USSR were showing a good perspective of being a partner that was technologically and militarily rising, the main reason that Britain had stayed away from her was the ideological difference, considering the Communist regime of the Soviets (ENA, Historical Events). The last option might be to strengthen ties with the Commonwealth countries again while it was obvious that the independence trend led an irreversible change of character for the former member nations. In the end, Britain could not reproduce her former devoted relations with the newly-independent nations anymore.

After the WWII it was the passive and non-involving presence of Britain which made a decrease in her world power. Success of the new EEC institutions alongside with the economical arrangements were the positive consequences of European countries’ progressive approaches to take their fate into their own hands, which Britain could not match. When it was most needed for her own benefit, not taking an active role in world politics and on the contrary continuing her conservative policies and unenthusiastic point of view for a supranational authority, changed Britain’s formerly esteemed position in the world politics and it was a necessity to alter her mind and apply to be a partner of EEC members where a chance of political and economical progress might appear eventually.


BIBLIOGRAPHY


Shanks, Michael and Lambert, John. 1962. Britain and the New Europe: The Future of the Common Market. London: Chatto and Windus.

Mander, John. 1963. Great Britain or Little England. Middlesex: Penguin Books.

Beddington-Bahrens, Edward. 1966. Is There Any Choice? Britain Must Join Europe. Middlesex: Penguin Books.

Lloyd, T. O. 1986. Empire to Welfare State. New York: Oxford University Press.

Lee, Stephen J. 1996. Aspects of British Political History 1914-1995. London: Routledge.

Nelsen, Brent F. and Stubb, Alexander. 2004. “The Tragedy of Europe” Speech of Winston Churchill at Zurich University in The European Union: Readings on the Theory and Practice of European Integration. Boulder: Lynne Rienner.

Dinan, Desmond. 2004. "What Kind of Union" in Europe Recast. Boulder: Lynne Rienner.

Dinan, Desmond. 2005. "Uncertain Terrain, 1958-1972" in Ever Closer Union: An Introduction to European Integration. Boulder: Lynne Rienner.

Hörber, Thomas. 2006. The Foundations of Europe, European Integration Ideas in France, Germany and Britain in 1950s. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag Für Sozialwissenschaften.

Urwin, Derek W. 2007. "The European Community: From 1945 to 1985" in European Union Politics. Michelle Cini. New York: Oxford University Press.

ENA (European Navigator). Historical Events. http://www.ena.lu/ (accessed in December 27, 2009)

MORE THAN A BORDER

2009

When people discuss the immigration problem, they generally approach the argument in their own aspects and own benefits. I understand that, as a part of human manner, mankind tries to protect his own goods and benefits and unintentionally disregard other features of the issue that are relevant to others. Although this behavior may be accepted in minor issues, when it comes to more serious problems that effect not one individual but many others, there appears a need to think the issue from several aspects and come up with different solutions. In this paper, I will discuss the illegal immigration problem between the U.S. and Mexico while taking into account the relevant parties and recommend possible solutions for the topic with the help of Evren Çelik’s article named “Globalization and Mexico” and the movie named “Fast Food Nation” directed by Richard Linklater.

United States and Mexico are sharing a 2000 miles international border that is very frequently crossed by many Mexicans every year. There are approximately 10 million Mexicans living and working in the United States today (Çelik, p. 218). The question is, why do these people leave their homeland and choose to be illegal immigrants in another country? The money is the first answer here but aren’t there any other causes? To answer these questions, first there should be mentioned about two popular topics, capitalism and globalization, which brought many new production understandings to the world. In a simple manner, capitalism needs cheap labor for mass production and globalization helps it in some way. In brief, globalization facilitates not only integration of cultures and economies but also some kind of integration among people.

When we look at our Mexican immigrants’ case, it can be seen that capitalism and globalization didn’t work for the benefit of Mexico very well. The unequal distribution of wealth and lack of education -which are probably the results of the ongoing disorder and trouble in the country as consequences of military ruling and severe controversies between left and right ruling parties until 1990s- made Mexican people consider immigration as a natural process. Education is not the primary objective for many young Mexicans as they mostly see their future in immigrating to the U.S. They will be working in bad conditions in U.S. but how can they be accused since they will be earning much more than they earn in homeland? In “Fast Food Nation” there is this conversation between the character played by Bruce Willis and the fast food company manager: “He gets a job working for U.M.P. making $10 an hour. That's more money in one day than he makes back home in a whole month” he talks about the illegal workers. “Nobody is making these people come up here. Right? Nobody's telling them to come and work for U.M.P.”

On the other hand, American patriots are unhappy with this illegal immigration of foreigners. The cheap labor force of Mexicans and other foreigners made American people unemployed somehow. They see this as a disturbing competition since most of the immigrations are illegal and work for very low wages compared to Americans. But not all Americans are unhappy with this process. In contrast to American nationalists, many American factory owners and employers -particularly in agricultural, construction and meatpacking sectors- are reluctant to dismiss this cheap and mobile source of Mexican labor force (Çelik, p.218). Not only American business owners but also the Mexican state is quite happy with the current process as many Mexican immigrants send their earnings back to their families in homeland and this means the entrance of foreign exchange to Mexico. So the irregularity of immigration is swept under the rug for the benefit of both parties. To sum up, it is a discomfort for Americans as they see immigrants as “the others” and these immigrants work in very bad conditions for low wages and still keep migrating to U.S.

In this section, I will come up with possible short term and long term plans which will ensure a reduction in the number of Mexican immigrants in U.S. First of all, it should be understood that immigration is not a minor problem and cannot be solved in short term. There should be combination of short term plans and long term investments. One of the long term solutions -which can probably be thought of easily- is the potential U.S. investments in Mexico which are administrated by Mexicans but financed by Americans for some time. Those immigrating Mexicans, who are looking for a better future, should be convinced that their home country also have similar opportunities. The thing is there should be established a sense of belonging to their homeland. This can only be possible if there is order and progress in the country. Order is very much linked with the progress vice versa and these two factors can be achieved with strong education system. Many Mexicans see themselves as leaving the country one day and see less reason to invest in education. If they are assured that education is the way for richness and a better life, there would be less immigrant attempts. Who would leave a country that has order and progress and be a foreigner in another country?

In short term thinking, one can ask that how the number of immigrants can be decreased? An international border of 2000 miles cannot be controlled precisely. How about building a long wall in the border line that is preventing people pass the other side? No, that would be repulsive and provocative for both sides. Solutions should be deterrent but not insulting. As mentioned above, many U.S. employers are actors in illegal immigration. First they should be persuaded not to have those illegal workers but also some arrangements should be made that they will not be suffering economically. One possible solution is this: Factory owners, who register their foreign workers in the emigration offices, should be rewarded financially and be honored in public to be examples for other employers. There will be a sudden reduction in number of foreign workers but financially they will be supported and sooner or later they will find new labor either American or foreigner. My second suggestion is assuring immigrant workers to pay migration taxes. As the factory owners will be registering their immigrant workers, every foreign worker will be seen in the records and so avoiding these migration taxes will be tricky. These two possible short term moves may sound like a discrimination to get rid of immigrants but Mexico will be needing its manpower in its country for the progress after above-mentioned long-term investments. Besides registered workers will be having insurances which they did not have before.

In brief, to solve this illegal immigration problem, not only short term adjustments and long term investments but also time and patience are needed. All the relevant parties –illegal immigrants, American business owners, American workers and the two mentioned states- can benefit eventually if they follow and stick to the short and long term plans I have mentioned above. However, there is a big paradox that sounds quite discouraging. It is sure that U.S. needs cheap labor power in order to maintain the strength of its economy. But at the same time there is no room for illegal immigrants since culturally there is a discomfort in the society. So if they invest in Mexico, Mexico will improve economically and stand more on its own legs. Progress in Mexican economy will mean a decrease in U.S. export economy in the long run which also means that there will be no cheap labor from then on. Absence of cheap labor and an economically strong and independent neighbor are the least two things U.S. government will be looking for. To sum up, can we say that U.S. governments and relevant sectors are more likely to deal with people not the system since improving or converting the system is more difficult than aligning people?

ALIENATION OF A CUBAN ELITE IN THE WAKE OF REVOLUTION

2009

Most of the people see Havana as an attractive and exotic tourism center of Cuba, a center for prostitution, a backyard for honeymoons or a playground for vacations, where you can find yourself getting carried away with illicit pleasures and risky amusements. (Perez Jr, p.468) Cuba and its capital city, Havana, are more than that of course. It would be a great mistake and disrespectfulness to refer Havana as an amusement park as it was once a shocking case for the entire political world with its brave strife against U.S. hegemony. In this paper, I will first give a short summary of independence of Cuba starting in early 1900s than analyze the Cuban movie named “Memories of Underdevelopment” in the perspective of development – underdevelopment challenge of Cuban people.

To begin with, Cuba, an export oriented country with a tropical economy, lies in the south of the United States of America. Before coffee and tobacco, the most important export product of Cuba is sugar cane which Cuban economy vulnerably leans its back against. Along with the geographical importance of the island, this economic dependence on one product caused sovereignty issues several times in Cuban history, especially in the relations with U.S. and U.S.S.R.

After the Spanish-American war in the late 1800s, with the defeat of Spanish troops, Cuba declared its independency, which was ensured by the Platt Amendment signed between the U.S. and Cuba. Platt Amendment made U.S. have legal involvement in Cuban affairs in both foreign and domestic policies of the island. (Skidmore and Smith, p.261) Until 1933, the start of Batista regime, we see a number of U.S-free independency efforts in the island with some democratic try outs. With the help of United States, Fulgencio Batista ruled the country as a dictator until 1959 revolution and during this time he made the island a casino and prostitution based tourism center. During this period an economic pyramid of a large rural proletariat, a tiny middle class and a rich foreign landlords group was shaped. Beside this most of the people were suffering because of poverty and they were fed up with the Batista regime.

In 1959, under the command of Fidel Castro, a middle class member of the society with a socialist background, the revolution against the U.S. involvement in Cuba occurred. This meant the removal of U.S. forces from the island and the real independency of Cuban people over their territory. This also meant a difficult task for Castro and his friends as they took the lead of an underdeveloped and corrupt society with an economy of mainly underlying an unequally distributed possession of goods. While facing the embargo of U.S, they got close to Soviet Russia which is the cold war opposition of Americans. With the help of U.S.S.R, Cuba tried to maintain its sovereignty and get rid of underdevelopment in economic, social and political spheres through adopting communism, centralizing economy, nationalizing private institutions and building a national and independent identity.

It is not surprising that Cuba was unintentionally underpinning the tension between Cold War actors because of the island’s strategic closeness to U.S. When Cuba got close to Soviets economically and politically, it severely damaged the ongoing U.S tradition of protectionist policy which started with the Monroe Doctrine in 1823. According to this doctrine, any interventionist European power in the North and South Americas would be accepted as aggressive and let several harsh measures to be taken. Soviet relationship of Cuba meant Monroe Doctrine to be spoiled unavoidably and this indicated as a national security and integrity problem for the U.S. side. (Perez Jr, p.470) The peak of this Cuba-related Cold War tension was in 1962 when Soviet nuclear missiles were installed in the Cuban island to threaten the Americans and avoid them interfere the integrity of the island. Moreover, there is the Bay of Pigs incident in 1961, in which the unofficial U.S. troops tried to invade the island and overthrow the Cuban government of Fidel Castro but failed. (Castaneda, p.199) These were times that Americans seemed to be obsessed with the Cuba issue and they were repeatedly overcome by Castro and his friends.

Memories of Underdevelopment, which takes place in the year 1961, is the story of a Cuban elite named Sergio who unlike many other Europeanized Cuban elites decides to stay in Cuba and not to leave his revolutionized country. In several scenes, we see that nicely dressed elite people leaving the country for the hope of a better place, better than a communist land. They probably think that Havana, the Paris of Caribbean, will now leave its European atmosphere and be a less developed, bald city. In contrast, Sergio is eager to find out what will happen next in the island. He chooses not to participate in politics but to be an obscener like a political scientist. In one scene, Elena, a 16 year old uneducated girl he seduces, states his neutral standing as being nothing: “You are neither a revolutionary
nor a counter-revolutionary. You are nothing” she says. Maybe he escapes from the possible trouble in getting into the complicated politics in Cuba, maybe he prefers to be outside and just observe or maybe he believes that he doesn’t have the power to change things but the point is that although he seems impartial, throughout the movie he questions the underdevelopment issue of his country and in a materialized and minimal way he tries to change the women he meets to be more developed.

During the movie, Sergio, the elite macho that seduces women and classifies them as developed or underdeveloped, is usually contemptuous over underdeveloped people, especially women. Feeling alienated and alone in the new political era of the island and still not leaving the country, he tries to change things in his own way. We meet with four women in his life: first one is his ex-wife who leaves him for not being as she prefers him to be; second one is his housekeeper whom he sexually dreams of; third one is Elena which is mentioned above and the last one is Hanna which he likes and misses most as she projects a more developed woman. Early in the movie one can feel that Sergio is shaping and determining his life over women and sexuality. But throughout the movie it is understood that it is the way of him reasoning development-underdevelopment challenge in his mind. He asks himself repeatedly: “How do you get rid of underdevelopment?” The point is: does he ask this question as an elite writer of the society or an elite playboy who enjoys being with women? How and where are the women situated here for him? What do they mean to him? A materialized and symbolized way of the country or a sexuality object?

The most detailed relationship that is shown in the movie is the one with Elena, the uneducated slum girl who dreams of being an artist. As Sergio loses his sexual interest of her, he starts questioning about her level of development in his standards. "She doesn't relate to things," he tells himself. "It's one of the signs of underdevelopment. Elena, like other Cuban women", he says, “has an "inability to relate to things, to accumulate experience, to develop." At that point, it is obvious that he symbolizes Cuba and the society’s underdevelopment in Elena’s prospect. He takes her to art galleries and the museum of famous writer Ernst Hemingway but cannot make her interested in these. At one point he reflects, "I discovered Elena didn't think as much as I did. I try to live as a European and she makes me feel the underdevelopment at every step." While the movie shows this dissatisfaction in many scenes, it doesn’t mention how to get rid of underdevelopment or how elites should behave to level up the underdeveloped population. Is being more involved in arts be sufficient to be more developed? Is an art gallery the place where you are developed?

In brief, Memories of Underdevelopment is the story of a frustrated Cuban elite that is stuck between his intellectual convictions and the reality of Cuban life in the wake of the revolution. His alienation from the underdeveloped society and desire to observe the newly revolution’s effects is the core of the film while the director gives us an idea about the current issues in these times using documentary cuts about Bay of Pigs invasion and missile crises. This is an admirable effort by the director who makes the audience feel the same way Sergio feels and question the society as he does. The last question in my mind about the film and Sergio is: Does his inability to keep his interest in underdeveloped women or incapacity to change them in the way he wants make him believe that he is not that powerful alone to change the country in a more developed understanding? Isn’t it possible that this parallelism make him confused and alienated?

UNCONVINCING ANALYSIS OF LEADER AND LED RELATIONS IN SIMMEL'S "DOMINATION AND FREEDOM"

2008

Master and slave relation is studied in many perspectives by many famous scientists such as Hegel and Nietzsche, and I believe it is still worthy of studying it profoundly. It is worthy because arguments over power and domination will always be held in any place where there is more than one person. Famous German sociologist Georg Simmel analyses domination and reciprocity concept in his text called “Domination and Freedom” which have a consistent context in itself. However, in my opinion, there are also some unconvincing points. In this paper, I will discuss the leader and led (or master and slave) analysis of Simmel's which he is mistaken to observe these two distant terms like they are the same and my aim will be to define how this issue can be understood differently.

Quoting from Simmel: “All leaders are also led; in innumerable cases, the master is the slave of his slaves” I suppose it is not proper to put ‘master’ into the position of ‘slave’ just because there is reciprocity between them. Of course there will be interaction but in my opinion the man who holds the power to rule and make people do something cannot be equal in any terms with man that are led, metaphorically slaves. This perception of Simmel’s sounds far away from the situation in real world where many led people really believe that they are just the led ones and have no opportunity to become other than that.

Simmel continues: “Said one of the greatest German party leaders referring to his followers: ‘I am their leader, therefore I must follow them’.” I think Simmel misses the fact that leader is not obliged to listen to suggestions of people. His will is to become the master so until becoming one he chooses to listen to them. After becoming a master it is again his choice to listen to them or not. This situation doesn’t turn a leader into a slave, instead his luxury of selection makes him a more powerful master. Maybe we should change the quote of the German leader: I am a candidate to become their leader, therefore I should follow them. selection

Let’s think about a prime minister who is elected with people’s votes in a proper way. People elected him because he promised them what they wanted and under the state laws he became the leader. Unless he breaks the laws, whether he gives people what he promised or not, he will still be the leader of the country for a certain period. One can say that a revolution may be the solution to bring down the prime minister and select someone or some group to get what is promised to them. I would say that in every way possible, including the revolution, some people will be the master and some others will be the slaves. Only the names will change, positions will stay the same. Master and slave interaction will continue in a different form.

Simmel also mentions punishment weapon of the leader: “If the absolute despot accompanies his orders by the threat of punishment or the promise of reward, this implies that he himself wishes to be bound by the decrees he issues.” Although I accept his kind of philosophical explanation, I also find this definition quite weak to see the reality. As a teacher is at the same time a leader, it is acceptable that he says he will punish the students who don’t come to class. His decrees cannot bind him as he is still the man in charge; he has the chance of making a choice to punish or not to. Even after he sets a decree, he can still forget about it and in fact that luxury of selection makes him more powerful.

To conclude, although Simmel’s text called “Domination and Freedom” is consistent in itself and he also makes significant clarifications about the reciprocity of master and slave, in my opinion it is an important mistake what Simmel did which is observing master and slave terms in equal conditions. Master’s bright conditions make him able to make decisions or decide the conjuncture and this situation makes him more powerful comparing to slaves who are in a desperate position, only to accept their leaders’ choices. Through the essay, I hope I could managed to lighten some points which are far from being concrete in the text.

Georg Simmel, Domination and Freedom, p. 207
Georg Simmel, Domination and Freedom, p. 207
Georg Simmel, Domination and Freedom, p. 208

REVIEW OF "JOURNEY TO THE SUN"

2008

I would like to review that movie in a sociological manner and try to make observations about the current relationship between the state of Turkey and its minorities but unfortunately the viewpoint of the scriptwriter and her narrating of the story leaves me one choice which is to stay away from the content and focus more on the cinematographic aspect of the production. Below, you are going to read my short criticism for why I choose to review the movie in a cinematographic aspect instead of a sociological manner.

As a political science student, the thing I learned mostly through my college life is to observe and analyze the incidents in multiple perspectives. That means being a side or a supporter and arguing it only the way you prefer for your gain is the thing a political science student should prevent himself from doing. And even not only a political science student but also anyone who is interested in human and its sociological aspects: living conditions, identities etc should avoid looking from only one aspect.

In my humble opinion, the scriptwriter of the movie couldn’t escape clichés and simple symbolisms about the minority issue of Turkey. I can even claim that the horrible movie called Midnight Express would be on the same page on the aspect of being a side and watching the road with blinkers. If I would be a foreigner I would think that all the Kurdish people are nice and perfect like butterflies but on the other hand Turks, who are the so-called ‘only’ responsible community for the oppression of Kurds, are cruel, dirty and rude people. You can’t even see a bad behavior of Kurdish guy in the movie and all the rude and dirty attitudes are made by Turks, especially the security forces. There is no security member that is sensible and polite in Turkey, I guess.

It is the scriptwriter’s mistake which causes the understanding I stated above. In my humble opinion she made her choices to show the oppression of minorities in a dramatic way but on the other hand she has forgotten why all these things happen, the reasons of the oppression etc. There are many holes in the story which makes it difficult to observe the story in a multiple perspective.

So I chose to review it in a cinematographic aspect but I see that, although the movie collected some international awards, there are many amateurish dialogues between the characters which leave the viewer in surprise. In order to provide a natural way of narrating the scriptwriter chose unknown actors and used a simple narrating but she couldn’t make the balance between being natural or amateurish. Also the bad acting of the characters helped it a lot, in my opinion.

And lastly I would like to mention about the tagline of the movie which is “A movie about peace and brotherhood.” Peace? I couldn’t see any peace in the movie.

To summarize I would like to say that I prefer to learn about these sort of sensitive issues like the minority problems from history and sociology books instead of one sided, dramatically narrated movies. I hope I could have explained my viewpoints and thoughts in a polite and understandable way.

OPPRESSION OF WOMEN - ANALYSIS OF "THE ACCUSED"

2007

“I'm a drunk, I'm a pothead, a drug addict, a slut that got bounced around a little in a bar? So I didn't get raped?”

Right after a baby is born, it is asked if it is a boy or girl. -that happens right before the ultrasound technology of course- If it is a boy, the parents cheer and make dreams of how a strong and big man he is going to become in the future. If it is a girl, parents may cheer again but right after that they probably wish a good and lucky future to her maybe with a rich and strong husband. That is not the general speaking of course but it is a widespread thinking because of the gender divisions in today’s world.

Although there are recent developments in gender thinking, superiority of men over women is still usually seen as normal in many areas. Think about the behaving types of parents during the childhood of a newborn. If it is a boy “You are gonna be strong and rich, come on my boy! Wear these blue things!” and if it is a girl “Oh, pretty, you are so pretty. My dear, beautiful and pretty lady, let’s play some housing!” Despite the fact that hormones of both sexes are pretty decisive in gender attributes, it is also a fact that the behaviors of parents and effects of the environment leave very considerable traces in child’s personality.

In addition to the widespread view that woman is inferior, it is also important to mention about this widespread view’s effects in women’s daily lives. It is usually thought that men and women have different social roles and both genders must adjust them for the sake of overall happiness. Women do the housework, cooking for the family, feeding the baby etc. There are some limits on things they can do and if they pass those limits it is the right of men to punish them. On the other hand, men -the superior side- are in the front line whatever they do, good or bad. It doesn’t matter which stratification type you think while dividing two genders, in economic or social aspect, in traditional thinking or the physical comparison, it is always men’s side that is strong and legitimate. There have been some improvements on this unjust thinking in recent decades with the support of feminist thinking but it is still widespread, it still affects the lives of many women in a bad way.

The movie called ‘The Accused’ points out women’s desperate situation in a heart beating and disturbing way. Sarah Tobias, the leading character, a middle class member, an alcoholic and smoker, gets raped in a bar and this incident makes her life more desperate as the rapists are found as irresponsible assaulters in the court and she is unofficially blamed for the rape because of her so-called provoking dress or dancing. Also her alcohol use and smoking habit makes her statements less convincing.

Not only her psychology but also her social life is destroyed after the rape incident. In the movie her desperate situation, both before and after the rape incident is showed very clearly and also disturbing just like reality. I suppose the filmmakers felt it necessary to give the viewer exactly the horror Sarah Tobias endured while she was held down and repeatedly assaulted. During the movie you can’t escape the reality that women is seen as different –different in an inferior way- and you feel the inequality all over.

To conclude, it is a hard thing to make real but equality of men and women is a ‘must’ for the sake of a more just order in the world. There is a long way for this dream to become real as it has been more than centuries that man is superior over woman but with education and a better understanding of the inequality and thinking of possible long-term solutions for it may help to figure out the situation.

REVIEW OF "IF SHARKS WERE PEOPLE..."

2008

“Of course, there would be schools in the big boxes as well. There the little fish would learn how to swim into the mouths of the sharks.”

Before analyzing this allegorically adorned short story, first we should better know the political ideology of the writer, Bertolt Brecht, as his symbolisms in this story directly points finger at the ruler and subservient relationship and obedience phenomenon. Bertolt Brecht, famous as a play writer and a poet, was known with his communist ideology which fed not only his life perspective but also his writings.

In my humble opinion, in his short-story named “If Sharks were People…” he is making a criticism of capitalist system which he sees as the higher class’ oppression over the masses. He chooses to make this criticism using allegories, sharks as the rulers and little fish as the masses. The reason he decides for symbolism may be for readers to think thoroughly and find their own reasons and conclusions. The way he chooses, allowing reader to think and form his own judgment, is fundamentally a better and more influent way.

Brecht sees arts, religion and education as an opportunity for “the big brother” to bring the masses of little fish to his knees. He thinks of art as a way to show the shark in a better way. He thinks of religion as a way to make fish believe being eaten by a shark in the right time is a holy thing. He thinks of education as a way to teach masses the obedience to the superior.

“One would let the little fish know that this future is only assured when they learn obedience....”

From my point of view, Brecht wishes a more skeptic and maybe a more dynamic, judgmental and revolting way of living for people. He desires a life that people chooses their own ways in their own style of living and own style of thinking. Although failing to escape from the bombardment of advertising and being influenced is inevitable, masses may be able learn the truth underneath and choose their own way and maybe even choosing their way of being influenced. This means a conscious escape from the obedient mass and that is what Brecht desires and why he uses symbolisms, I suppose.

In Yusuf Idris’ “The Chair Carrier” there is also a similar criticism about the obedience culture. In the story there was a chair which was symbolizing the unquestioned responsibilities.

REVIEW OF "A ROSE FOR EMILY"

2008

“Miss Emily, had been a tradition, a duty, a care; a sort of hereditary obligation upon the town”

Emily Grierson is the protagonist of our story, a stubborn woman filled with determination but also stuck in some old habits which are fed by the shadow of his dominant father. She is not only the main character of the story but also like the main event and the schedule of the town. She is like a symbol that reminds the “good old days” for her environment which is a southern town that gradually forgets its stubborn and determined character with the new generation, “a rising generation with modern ideas”.

Emily’s life is narrated in a nonlinear way which makes it easier for us to know her personality and understand her standing point among the neighbors. In the first paragraph of the first part we read that she is dead. In the second paragraph which is about the tax incident, we learn what principles or attitudes she and the Colonel from the old generation have. Then the story goes on with the new generation’s point of view. In the whole story, we see a nonlinear narration which tells about her love with Homer Barron in her thirties, her death and its mysterious heritage in her seventies, her father’s death and many other events that gives us information about her character and the environment’s standing point.

“Then we noticed that in the second pillow was the indentation of a head. One of us lifted something from it…”

Narrator of the story has a very large influence. Faulkner doesn’t give a clue about narrator’s identity, whether it is a male or a female, an old or a new generation, an officer or a villager etc. But the way he narrates incidents can be traced through digging the sentences. His repeatedly usage of “we” is the one that worth attention. Furthermore he sounds like a follower of a new generation but also a member of the new generation in some paragraphs. Maybe we can say that he is the mixed soul of the town who both carries the old and new generations’ aspects and habits. His way of telling the story doesn’t sound like he is the biggest of fan Emily Grierson but on the other hand you can clearly feel that he respects her character and overcomings very much. This non-white, non-black but a close gray style of the narrator gives reader a proper chance to examine the character in a clear glance.

In addition there is another thing to mention which is the contribution of the environment in the story. Although Emily Grierson doesn’t seem very much effected from her environment’s judgments or opinions, they all carry important roles for readers to understand the angles they have against the incidents Emily faces. They gossip about her relationship with her father, question her “sweetheart” Homer Barron and “noblesse oblige” principles. Following the unwritten old rules and traditions, like Colonel Sartoris and Judge Stevens do, they show respect and sensibility towards her. This may be because she is one of the leading old generation residents. She is like the symbolical representation of the determined southern character which is gradually disappearing, as a disrespectful and graceless new generation is taking its seat.

HYPOCRISY AND EVILNESS OF MANKIND

2008

Thessie Hutchinson shouted to Mr. Summers, “You didn’t give him enough time to take any paper he wanted. I saw you. It wasn’t fair.”

Until the sentence above, the story makes an impression of a small American town’s happy ritual. A cool weather with the sun shining above; children playing around and making jokes with cheerful laughings; arrival of men to the lottery place and their talkings about daily things such as crops, tractors etc and arrival of women with gossiping: such a normal town expression which a ritual or celebration will probably be happened in. But after Thessie’s shouting at Mr. Summers, reader normally gets frowned and starts to think about what is going to happen in the final of this popular short story: “The Lottery”.

The Lottery is written by Shirley Jackson in 1948, in the post-war and pre-cold war time. When it was published in the New Yorker magazine, Shirley Jackson and the book met with so many negative responses from readers who are in an angry manner which can be quoted (with imagination) like “How can you say that people can kill each other with stones and how can it be possible that everybody does not only let the lucky(!) guy get murdered but also contribute to the show, even their families?”

No matter how negative responses Jackson met, The Lottery is more than popular in our time with its symbolic meanings, quotes of people with intense meanings about rituals, sacrifices and the evilness and hypocrisy of human nature when their eyes were blinded with post-war manners and its painful effects in a growing society.
“Lottery in June, corn be heavy soon.”

The happy and cheerful arrivals of villagers to the place where the lottery is going to be taken turns into a much more different way in the later paragraphs and shows the sacrifice and maybe a relaxation ritual of the town people. Villagers’ hypocrisy and blindness for murdering a villager who is chosen by a lottery and people’s acceptance and their point of view that “this lottery is the one that should be done” are the points Shirley Jackson wants to emphasize in my humble opinion. Old man’s saying that “lottery in june, corn be heavy soon” shows that people believe the sacrifice will bring a more productive cropping and this belief and ritual makes people more encouraged. In addition, a symbolic meaning can be mentioned that the similarity of stones which are collided by children to the shape of the corn pieces. There can also be found more symbolic descriptions such as the names of organizers, Mr. Summers, Mr. Graves etc. Also the writer chooses ordinary or general names for villagers like Warner, Martin, Anderson to emphasize that people are the same in fact and that the ordinary atmosphere of the villagers cannot change that reality too much.

In conclusion, although Jackson confronts very negative responses in the time the story is published, with her expression of mankind’s evilness and hypocrisy in a symbolic style of writing, The Lottery, after its 60 years of being published, still makes great impact and excitement on new generations.

EFFECTS OF FAMILY SPLIT IN CHILD'S LIFE

2008

I. Introduction

In this paper, I would like to propose a study examining the short term implications of parental conflict on child. I would like to focus on especially the social and educational accomplishments of children in short-term measurements which can be emphasized as their time spending with friends, meeting new people, joining new organizations or working groups, time spending inside home and the probable changes in school grades and participation in lessons.

Whether parents are not happy with their relationship and comfortable about separating their ways or not, it is certain that most of the parental conflicts results with devastating consequences in children’s not only short term progress but also future lives. Parental conflict has been found to have damaging effects on child’s educational attainment, parent-child relationships and marriage experiences and also psychological adjustment.
Besides the researches show us the fact of damaging and devastating effects of parental conflicts on children, there is another thing that should be considered seriously which is the possible support for child’s development after divorce. A professional intervention in kid’s life may decrease the detrimental side-effects of divorce.

II. Literature Review

As anybody suggested, I am planning to use some scholarly articles that related to my topic where outcomes and consequences of parental separation and probable solutions for it analyzed properly. But since the researches that I chose are not very definitive about their researching methods I was not able to write down their choices of investigation. So I preferred to write down their perspectives about consequences and solutions for the situation.

I would like to start my literature review section with an article that investigates parental conflict’s outcomes for children in long term. It is Bryan Rodgers and Jan Pryor’s article called “Divorce and separation: the outcomes for children”. Rodgers and Pryor emphasizes that short-term effects of separation usually fades with time. According to their research being in poverty and housing, being poorer when they become adults, having behavioral problems, performing less well at school, needing medical treatment, becoming sexually active or pregnant at an early age and high levels of smoking and drinking are some of the probable consequences these children face. Rodgers and Pryor also study the factors that form these outcomes and underline some of them like financial hardship, multiple changes in family structure and psychological instability during separation.

Rodgers and Pryor’s policy implications are another part in their research that gets attention in my opinion. They suggest that support for parents to deal with the distress of separation is needed to enable them better to help the children and teachers and family lawyers need to be equipped to help as they are often approached for this support. Moreover, they add that information needs to be provided for parents that they should be encouraged to minimize the involvement of children in their disputes.

Second article that I will mention about is much more long-term based conducted by R. Ahrons. Ahrons interviewed 173 grown children, 20 years after their parents’ divorce. He addresses two questions which are: What impact does the relationship between parents have on their children 20 years after the divorce? When a parent remarries or cohabits, how does it impact a child's sense of family?

In his charming study, it is been shown that cooperative parents are very helpful for child’s recovering after the outcomes of separation. He adds that most of the children experience the remarriage of one or both parents, and one third of this sample remembers the remarriage as more stressful than the divorce.

As long as I have no such chance to make a study lasting 20 years or more, I studied this article to give me some opinion about the facts of separation of parents and its consequences for children. Ahrons’ study deserves an appreciation as a study that continues for 20 years needs a very-well designed concept to be conducted well.

Final research is much more like a review of the consequences of the problem and solutions for it which is done while examining two researches that are already done: one of which is conducted in 1971 and the other in 2004. Wallerstein is the conductor of the research that is done in 1971 gives an important saying in the review: "Our findings challenge the myth that divorce is a transient crisis and that as soon as parents re-establish their lives, the children will recover fully, a myth which doesn't happen."

III. Methodology

To start with, I am planning to select the respondents from high school students whose parents have split up at most 12 months ago. The reason I put the red line in 12 months is because one year is not a very long period that a human being can easily get used to so many changes in his life. A participant that experienced family split more than one year ago cannot be able to give me precise facts about changes in his life. In my humble opinion the best option would be to select respondents that had a parental conflict in at most 6 months ago but it would be difficult to find such respondents.

High school students from both the Asian and European sides of Istanbul will be the respondents for my survey questions and in-depth interviews. The first of all I will note down the region they live in the aspect of wealth, population and education level. This information will give the chance to evaluate their living conditions generally.

Since information about respondents’ characteristics is very crucial; to know their possible adjustments to the changes in family structure, it is a “must” to know their style of thinking. Their religiosity, plans for the future, political views and many other possible aspects can be analyzed. In addition, I am thinking of some professional character tests and maybe a professional help to see their characters’ weak and strong sides.
In general questionnaire, the type of questions will be as following:

• Do you define yourself as religious?
• What are your plans upon the future?

Also there will be sub-scale questions like:

‘Where do you state yourself in terms of concepts below?’ (1 to 10 scale questions)
• Independency
• Responsibility
• Sociability

Another think that we must know is their GPA’s and school success before and after the family split. That will be a major point to see their possible changes and affects of changes in the family structure. Also I want to investigate their attendance rates to the lessons. Since parental conflicts can affect the child’s social and educational life I will also investigate their participation for school organizations, trips or parties.

After formulating some general opinions about respondents’ characteristics and educational performance and participations, I will make an in-depth interview. I will ask questions about their parents’ separation and try to get some individual perspective about their thoughts for their parents’ splitting and its effects on their lives. I will ask questions in personal so they will be not affected because of group psychology. Since it is a research design for my study, it is more suitable to prefer exploratory research.

These methods are used by many other researchers in so many times so there will not be a reliability issue in my study. But there can be problems to understand their perspectives in in-depth interviews which can solved with a professional help. And finally the most important think is to stay valid in the research and try to focus on precise topics.

IV. Ethics

To keep the research successful I am planning to keep the research as a secret since their attributes, thoughts and answers’ styles can change in any way if they know they are being researched. On the other hand it is certain that it is not so ethical. The other ethical concern might be my bias that is reflected to questions. They can effect the views of students to different positions. Finally, it is for sure that my study does not give social or psychological harm to the respondents and they will take questionnaire with their own will.

V. Budget Issues and Funding

My sample size will be like 100 students from high schools in Asian and European sides of Istanbul. There will be a need for 10-20 interviewers and a professional help to analyze the characteristics of respondents. A budget like 2000-3000 YTL may help to overcome the project. University funding council would be very enthusiastic to support a student researcher in this topic I suppose.

Bibliography

• Children in Changing Families: Life After Parental Separation (Understanding Children's Worlds), Jan Pryor and Bryan Rodgers (2001)

• Family Process, R. Ahrons (2007)

• Effects of Divorce on Children, unknown writer (2008) http://ivythesis.typepad.com/term_paper_topics/2008/02/effects-of-divo.html

NATURE OF HUMAN AND SOCIETY ORDER ACCORDING TO FOUR MODERN PHILOSOPHERS

2008

In this paper, you will find four modern time philosophers’ –Niccolo Machiavelli, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and Jean Jacques Rousseau- concerns about life, liberty, property, state, equality and rights of mankind in the nature and in the society. In the first four pages there will be philosophers’ analyses about natural liberties of human species and rights that is provided by the state. At the end of the paper, you can find my opinions about which state would provide more freedom to the person and society.

Before starting the analysis of Niccolo Machiavelli’s (1469-1527) views about human nature, it is important to mention that his definitions about mankind are mainly negative. He sees mankind as evil and self-interested and he emphasizes the unstoppable desires and short-sighted future view of the mankind. Since human nature has insatiable desires, no matter what you give to him, he will not be satisfied and will look for something better or newer. However, he states that mankind’s negative sides are all because of his nature.

“Men are by nature envious” (Discourses, Book 1, page: 59)

In addition, Machiavelli believes that citizens can only be good under good constitutions and laws. From a viewpoint, this suggestion signifies that mankind can be educated despite his calculating and self-interested personality. In his two books, Prince and Discourses, he does not say much about the human nature as much as he mentions about power relations and constitutions.

According to him, the characteristics of humankind which are stated above and the conflicts between common people and powerful people destructs the society and society looks up for solutions for a secure system which can be found in a powerful state. In Machiavelli’s state, headquarters must be decisive, flexible, deceptive and should have the ability to manipulate the insatiable desires and short-sighted view of mankind. Moreover, he states that politic liberty can only flourish under republic but in any way decay of it is inevitable unless there will be a reform. His solutions for an efficient state is a mixed government with ‘checks and balances’.

Similar to Machiavelli, Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) also has ‘some’ negative connotations on the nature of humankind. When he wrote his famous book Leviathan, England was in civil war and it has been said that his thoughts about human nature is largely affected during this time. Hobbes sees man as a mechanical object which is a collection of nerves, joints and a heart. This point of view also builds his judgement on human nature and liberty as he defines liberty by saying “liberty is moving without impediments”.

According to Hobbes, human are all equal by nature. It does not matter if you are much stronger than others, there will always be somebody to kill you who is smarter and more intelligent. In his perspective there is always an equality in violence and vulnerability among people and all the struggles come out because of this evenness. So this uncertainty brings need for a state that puts rules and provides security among equal subjects.

For as to the strength of body, the weakest has strength enough to kill the strongest, either by secret machination, or by confederacy with others, that are in the same danger with himself. (Classics of Moral and Political Theory, page: 620)

In addition to natural equality, Hobbes defines mankind as self-interested and he thinks mankind gives more value to himself than others. If his first aim is to get his demands, second aim will be the concern for protecting it. In summary, Hobbes points out self-preservation as the root of mankind’s violent attitudes and this fearful situation will change the state of nature -which is also defined as ‘state of war’ by Hobbes- to state of law.

Hobbes states that the state of nature is a destructive situation of ‘war of all against all’ and with the fear of violent death mankind will demand a social contract that keeps security in society and provides state of law. In Hobbes’ state, different from Machiavelli’s republic, constitution consists of one ruler, metaphorically named ‘Leviathan’. That one ruler becomes the sovereign with the consent of all the society in exchange for full security. Sovereign is a non-removable ruler with limitless power and the contract between the ruler and the society can only end if the sovereign cannot provide the security. The Leviathan, the ruler, must resist both external and internal threats.

John Locke (1643-1704), our third modern philosopher, looks at human kind less pessimistically than Machiavelli and Hobbes. His famous book, Second Treatise on Government is many times seen as a direct response to Hobbes. Like Hobbes, Locke thinks men are all equal by nature but unlike him Locke also adds that mankind is reasonable and capable of living under state of nature or natural law. He claims that natural liberties, peace and mutual love are the characteristics of mankind. On the other hand, mankind’s capability of living under the state of nature or instinct of mutual love do not change the fact that there are uncertainties in human nature. Mankind’s characteristics and uncertainty leads the state of nature to the state of war and a civil government in the following. Needs of constant security and impartial judge make people build a state that will compose the order.

From Locke’s standing point, there are three things that makes human a ‘human’: life, liberty, property. According to him, each individual is equal to each other and all people have the liberty to act as they will. Beside these, property is very important and it is practically his proof for being a mankind. In addition to that, Locke pays attention to the notion of labour. According to him, in one sense labour is the property of mankind and it plays a crucial role in the society.

Though the earth and all inferior creatures be common to all men, yet every man has a "property" in his own "person." This nobody has any right to but himself. The "labour" of his body and the "work" of his hands, we may say, are properly his. (Classics of Moral and Political Theory, page: 746)

Despite the fact that Locke’s government’s main function is to provide order and security against uncertainties in the society, he also insists that government’s another and also important function should be to protect life, liberty, property. According to him, in order to be legitimate, ruler must protect the property of individuals. Moreover his ideal government’s function of securing the orders sounds similar to Hobbes’ government’s but it is crucial to mention that Locke’s ideal type differs from Hobbes’ in giving the society the right to revolution if the government cannot compose the order. It is probably one of the most important differences between these two philosophers’ ideal states. Another important difference is the political authority’s limits. Unlike Hobbes, Locke supposes that limitless political authority brings slavery to society and society’s possible consent for being slave cannot be accepted.

“Man was/is born free; and everywhere he is in chains.” (Social Contract, Vol. IV, page: 131)

Unlike Hobbes’ and Locke’s negative views on human nature, Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) thinks natural man is different from social man. In his viewpoint, natural man is an innocent, ignorant and happy creature unlike its social version’s dependency. When natural man experiences the society, he becomes unhappy and corrupted. Furthermore, Rousseau claims that natural man has two natural abilities: self-love and compassion. Self-love can turn into egoism unless compassion prevents.

According to him, there are certain turning points at history of human nature until civil society’s appearance. First agricultural development happens and humankind works on land. Then he makes money and money creates differences among people. Finally civil society is built with the desire of wealthy people in order to provide their security and save their property against poor people. Beside the security concerns, rich groups also have the chance to justify their wealth upon that society contract. After these steps, rich-poor dualism turns into powerful-weak and lastly master-slave dualism and so this process leads to the unhappiness of mankind.

“There is often a great deal of difference between the will of all and the general will. The latter looks only to the common interest; the former considers private interest and is only a sum of private wills. But take away from these same wills the pluses and minuses that cancel each other out, and the remaining sum of the differences is the general will.” (Social Contract, Vol. IV, page: 146).

In Rousseau’s ideal type of government, the main aim is common good which uses the help of general will. In his definition, general will is something that encourages the well-being of the whole, but it also can conflict with the particular desires of individuals. General will is not the will of majority or minority but the common good of the whole and people who refuse to submit to the general will must be forced to obey. In his system, individuals are always subjects to the rules in the government which is for the good of the society. Being a subject to the rules is something about liberties. When an individual gives up the freedom of natural liberty he acquires civil liberty which is the freedom you get with the social contract. Mankind loses his natural liberty which is the right to get everything he desires and on the other hand what he acquires is civil liberty which is the security and ownership of all he owns.

What is more, Rousseau’s government’s legislating and executive authorities must not be the same which can be defined as separation of powers. Finally, it is important to mention that in his society fathers’ consents to general will does not bind his children.

“The reason why men enter into society, is the preservation of property; and the why they choose and authorize a legislative, is, that there may be laws made, and rules set, as guards and fences to the properties of all members of the society.” (Second Treatise of Civil Government, pg: 682)

In this short, second chapter, you will find my personal thoughts about which society and its order provide more freedom among the four philosophers’ ideal states. In my humble opinion, John Locke’s property preserving ideal state which is also against the limitless political authority should be the one that provides the utmost freedom among all.

First of all, when we think about humankind’s loss of natural liberties in exchange for civil rights in state order, there are more positive points about providing freedom for person and society in Locke’s ideal state than other philosophers’. One of these positive aspects is that Locke is against the limitless political authority which can turn into a tyranny and devastate the society. In example, authority cannot levy or increase taxes without consent of society. If legislators exceed their authority which is gained by consent of society, people have the right to get back their consents and start a revolution.

According to him, political authority should be divided into legislative and executive parts which will prevent the authority be limitless. Moreover, impartial judge mechanism of authority satisfies society’s security needs which are triggered by the self-preservation and self-loving characteristics of mankind. Laws are applied equally to all people and this provides tranquillity among the society.

To sum up, property is the core of the human nature and state’s prior duty is to secure the property of human according to Locke. Besides, life and liberties of mankind which are also topics of today’s agenda are taken into consideration seriously by Locke. With all these being taken into consideration, I suppose Locke’s ideal state is the one that provides more freedom than others’.